Tuesday, December 31, 2019

Variable - Definition for the Term in Java

A variable is a container that holds values that are used in a Java program. Every variable must be declared to use a data type. For example, a variable could be declared to use one of the eight primitive data types: byte, short, int, long, float, double, char or boolean. And, every variable must be given an initial value before it can be used. Examples: int myAge 21; The variable myAge is declared to be an int data type and initialized to a value of 21.

Monday, December 23, 2019

India s Growth And Deterioration Of Insufficiency

Over the last century China and India has had economic growth. There has been substantial deterioration in poverty in both poor countries, but much more so in China. However, that economic growth and deterioration of insufficiency was not spread equally among the lives of the poor especially as it relates to health. In comparison, the health outcome in China has been much better than that of India and has been for numerous decades. According to Kanjilal, Mazumdar, Mukherjee, and Rahman (2010) the lifespan in China had risen in 1975 to a rate that India still had not achieved in the year 2000; as an example, life expectancy rate at birth in India is currently the same as what China’s was in 1970. Additionally, 46% of the children age three and under in India are underweight, and only 8% in China; however, for children in India age five and under the mortality rate is more than two times that of China (Jones, Jones, Perry, Barclay, Jones, 2010). Both China and India shared comparable strategies as it relates to development and reform. In 1978, China started reform with a closed non-market economy, while India had an open market that was state controlled until 1980 (Cyril, Oldroyd, Renzaho, 2013). The political settings were quite different under which reforms were introduced and executed which made the difference in the consequences amongst the two countries. India is still represented by an open take part multiparty democracy, while China has an authoritarian one partyShow MoreRelatedHistory of Electricity in Kerala - Dr D Shina12889 Words   |  52 PagesHISTORY OF ELECTRICITY IN KERALA – Dr D Shina S N COLLEGE, Kollam, Kerala, India email - achushina@gmail.com ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF ELECTRICITY The history of electricity can be traced back to the eighteenth century. The first instance of sensing the phenomenon of electricity was the accidental observation of what was later found out to be neon glow by Framas Bauksbw in 1709 at the Royal Society in London. Luigi Galvani observed moving of the legs of a dead frog when touched with a metal scalpelRead MoreIndian Fiscal Policy Impacts9621 Words   |  39 Pagesthe economy, in an effort to achieve economic objectives of price stability, full employment, and economic growth. Keynesian economics suggests that increasing government spending and decreasing tax rates are the best ways to stimulate aggregate demand. This can be used in times of recession or low economic activity as an essential tool for building the framework for strong economic growth and working towards full employment. In theory, the resulting deficits would be paid for by an expanded economyRead MoreWater as a Source of Future Conflict in Sa26984 Words   |  108 Pagesrelations billion people will be† (Kshatri 2004, 4). 2. 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Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of researchRead MoreInvestment Management System of Al-Arafah Islami Bank Limited W11687 Words   |  47 PagesMicrosoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft Power Point. 1.7 Limitations Though I have given utmost effort to prepare this paper but there are some limitations of the study. Such are as follows: âÅ"“ The main constrain of the study was insufficiency of information, which was required for the study. There are various information the bank employee can’t provide due to security and other corporate obligations. âÅ"“ Since the bank personnel were very busy, they could not provide enough timeRead MoreThesis on Infant Mortality15647 Words   |  63 Pagesdistribution of ages at death of infants (Encyclopedia of Death and Dying, 2010). Every day, 1500 women die in pregnancy or due to childbirth related complications worldwide. Two thirds of all maternal deaths in Asia and the Pacific occur in India (540 deaths per 100,000 live births) and Pakistan (500). Every year about 11 million children die, of which 10 million are in the developing world. South Asia is the continent where world’s poorest population is habituating. It’s social and economicRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pageswhere human communities globally and individuals locally had the potential to be much more intensely connected by new communications technologies, state-sponsored programs to achieve autarky, a global epidemic of ethnic strife, uncontrolled urban growth, and the dissolution of extended family ties in many societies divided nations and communities and isolated individuals to an extent unparalleled in recorded human history. For teachers, in particular, the challenge of weaving together in meaningfulRead MoreProblems on Cost Accounting70221 Words   |  281 PagesPROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE COURSE Cost Accounting and Financial Management Part 1 : Cost Accounting Vol. I The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (Set up by an Act of Parliament) New Delhi PAPER 3 COST ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT Part – 1 : Cost Accounting VOLUME – I BOARD OF STUDIES THE INSTITUTE OF CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS OF INDIA This study material has been prepared by the faculty of the Board of Studies. The objective of the study material is to provide teaching material

Sunday, December 15, 2019

Keeler released Symphony Q Series Free Essays

Symphony Q enables checks to adjust the camera’s exposure and slit-lamp lighting, irking with the lever of your trigger button to freeze and retailer pictures, including automatic continuous shooting to have the wonderful photos you need. Background lighting control Is Independent in the primary lighting system, make sure the very best contrast on the photos obtained. Http://www. We will write a custom essay sample on Keeler released Symphony Q Series or any similar topic only for you Order Now Kananga. Com/handheld-portable- slit-lamp-23. HTML Keller Capture is often a specialized image management application for the storage of patient facts. Its information database enables video inputs and outputs, and may add comment to patient details and storage, Capture computer software features a rarity of feature solutions module, prospects can pick in line with need to be versatile, from generic versions to upgrade to a later version, such as video capture, or by means of a network connection towards the workstation or for the server info retailer functions. Symphony of Q-Series digital slit lamps Complete Dealt Capture application and cameras; Symphony Q Digital-Ready with no software and cameras, but soon after acquiring Keller with Capture application from the camera module, in a position to easily upgrade the entire system. Who would prefer to get more facts about Symphony Q-Series digital slit lamps, please send an e mail to Maggie. bai@halma. CNN. United Kingdom-eye music company (wry. Keller. Com. UK) is a major manufacturer of ophthalmic and optometric gear, technical innovation considering the fact that its inception in 1917, expanding solution lines. Keller in 1953, produced the world’s first indirect ophthalmologic, revolutionize the funds examination, Vantage plus series of goods has develop into the sector benchmark, digital indirect ophthalmologic is additional clinical and teaching delivers excellent convenience. Nowadays, Keller non make contact with handheld and desktop odometer, surgical magnifying glasses, direct ophthalmologic, hand slit-lamp, surgical merchandise such as freezers for delivering us with additional and much more screening and remedy programmers. All goods are of Uk origin, high quality assurance. Http://www. Kananga. Com/digital-slit-lamp-microscope-29. HTML Steve Johnson may be the United kingdom proud (HALF PAL ? C wry. Half. CNN) subsidiary. Founded in 1894, generosity could be the world’s top overall health, safety ND environmental technologies group, listed enterprise around the London Stock Exchange, has greater than five,OHO staff around the planet, more than 40 subsidiaries. Bold will be the only listed corporation around the London Stock Exchange in the past more than 30 years of dividend growth 5% development in the enterprise. Bold in Shanghai, Beijing, Guanos, Changed and Shenanigan, with regional representation, and Bidding, Sheehan, Shanghai, Beijing, as well as other places to setup factories and production base. Http://www. Kananga. Com/ ophthalmic-slit-lamp-27. HTML How to cite Keeler released Symphony Q Series, Papers

Saturday, December 7, 2019

Standards Harmonization and Financial Statement †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Standards Harmonization and Financial Statement. Answer: Introduction Conceptual Framework may be defined as a system or ideas which are necessary to create consistent set of rules and guidelines which can be followed by different organization for the purpose of preparation of the annual reports of a business. The basic use of such a framework is immense as it is the basis on which financial statements are prepared and with the use of conceptual framework a general level of consistency and comparability can be maintained among organizations (Weil, Schipper and Francis 2013). This is due to the fact that it is a commonly used framework by all accountants. Such a framework includes accounting standards, principles, conventions and rules on the basis of which an entity prepares its financial statements. The conceptual framework was adopted by International Accounting Standard Board (IASB) and all business should follow the framework mandatorily. The conceptual framework should be followed by each entity to ensure that the financial statements is displayin g fair representation. The company which has been selected for this assignment is Ausdrill Ltd. the company is engaged in integrated mining activities and energy services. The company also engages in exploration, mine development and surface mining as well. The company has been expanding its business and have been achieving decent growths. The company operates in more than 10 countries with more than 4500 workers (Ausdrill.com.au. 2018). The company has a group revenue generation of $ 776 million in 2017. Objectives of Conceptual Framework As discussed above Conceptual Framework is essential to the business as it ensures that all the relevant standards are followed while preparing the financial statements. The objectives of conceptual framework are discussed below in details: The purpose of Conceptual framework is to ensure that the annual reports of the company are prepared in such a way that all information which are relevant are shown in the financial reports so that the potential investors and the present shareholders, lenders and creditors can use such information for the purpose of taking decisions regarding future investments and present holdings of the shares (Lawrence 2013). The financial statements are also taken as performance report of the company. In the case of Ausdrill ltd, the annual reports of the company for the year 2017 shows necessary information which are required by the shareholders to take decisions about investments and holdings. The profit and loss account, balance sheet and cash flow statement are effectively prepared which can provide the shareholders information regarding the overall performance of the company and also regarding how the business is utilizing the funds of the shareholders (Christensen and Nikolaev 2013). Another objective of Conceptual framework which is used in reporting is to effectively assess the amount of cash inflows which is generated by the business. The framework is also used to ascertained the resources which the business will be requiring for generating future cash inflows. As per the annual reports of Ausdrill ltd, the business has effectively anticipated certain expenses which the business will need to incur certain expenses which relates to repayment of debts in 2018. The business had avail cash advance facility of $ 125 million out of which 124.08 million remains undrawn and such will be maturing in 2018 therefore the company can expect cash inflows in 2018 from this source. The cash flow statement of the company shows all the relevant information regarding the cash inflows and outflows of Ausdrill Ltd. Conceptual Framework also helps to depict all the information which are relating to the assets, liabilities and the income and expenses of the company which can provide precise information about the performance of the company in financial terms (Leuz and Wysocki 2016). Ausdrill Ltd has shown in the statement of profit and loss account the net profit of the company along with all other income and expense items of the business. The main purpose of the conceptual framework of reporting is to ensure that the financial statements of the business is prepared in accordance with the requirements of the framework. The framework provides a means to the organizations to fairly represent the financial statements as the guidelines present in the conceptual framework is meant to help the businesses to prepare an annual report which displays all relevant information to the general public (Edmonds et al. 2016). The framework is also there so that there is simplicity and clarity in providing financial information in a report so that all the parties which are associated with the company can understand the financial information and then take decisions based on the same. Recognition Criteria The recognition criteria which is to be followed in order to fairly represent the financial statements of the company requires recording of an item as per the requirements of the conceptual framework. Australian Accounting Standard Board (AASB) is the board which issues standards related to accounting which set the guidelines which are to be followed by businesses for treatment of certain items of the financial statements and thereby ensuring that the annual reports are showing true and fair view (Stice and Stice 2013). The criteria for recognizing any item is based on the economic benefits of that item and another is the reliability of the item. The various items which are of significance and have been recognized by the company are discussed below: Assets: As per the general framework assets are to be subdivide into short-term assets and long-term assets which are also known as current and non-current assets respectively. Ausdrill ltd have subdivided their assets as per the requirement of the framework. The current assets of the company consist of cash and cash equivalents, inventory and debtors of the company which are common current assets items (Sherraden and Gilbert 2016). The extraordinary items which are shown in the financial statement is current tax receivables. The non-current assets of the company comprise of joint ventures agreements, property, plants and equipment and deferred tax assets. The assets are the basis on which revenues of the company are generated. Liabilities: The liabilities of the business are also sub divided into current and non-current liabilities similarly as assets. The total of the assets side will always be matching the total of liabilities side of the balance sheet as per the matching principle of accounting. The current liabilities consist of trade payables, short-term loans, employee benefit compensation. The non-current liabilities of the business consist of long-term borrowings and other expenses of long term nature. The liabilities are recognized on the basis of the obligation which the management has to pay to creditors or other external party. Income: The income of the company is recorded and shown in the profit and loss account prepared by the company. The basic source of revenue for the company is from the services provided which is related to mining, exploration and other similar activities of the business. The revenues are recognized by the company when the risks and rewards associated with the product is transferred to third party. Expenses: The expenses of the company are depicted in the profit and loss account of the company. Some of these expenses are cash expenses while some are non-cash like depreciation and impairment loss. The expenses of the company are incurred to continue the operation of the business and also to generate the profits and ensure that the revenues are more than the expenses of the company. Equity: The equity of the company comprises of retained earnings which are generated by the business and used for financing purpose of the business. It also consists of the share capital of the business which is shown in the statement of change in equity of business. These represents the owners capital of the business and also has reserves which are undistributed profits of the business. For the purpose of recognizing the business has followed all relevant standards issued by AASB and which are operating and in force in Australia which is clear from the auditors statement (Hope, Thomas and Vyas 2013). Fundamental Qualitative Characteristics As per the financial statements of Ausdrill ltd, the financial statements contains the qualitative characteristics which are given below in details: Relevance: This principle states that the annual reports of any business should include information which are relevant and which can be used by the shareholders of the company. In the case of Ausdrill ltd, all related AASB, IAS standard which makes the information contained in the financial statements relevant has been followed and moreover the company has given explanations about the different treatments of different items which are depicted in the annual reports of the company (Barth 2013). Faithful representation: In order to prove that the financial statements are showing true and fair view, the financial statement are audited and independently investigated by an independent and competent auditor. The auditors of the company are PWC which is one of the big 4 auditing firms. The auditor of Ausdrill ltd is of the view that the financial statements are showing true and fair view and the company has complied with all relevant accounting standards and principles. Enhancing Qualitative Characteristics The enhancing qualitative changes are such which adds further value to the financial statement of the company. These are discussed below in details: Comparability: The financial statement results are comparable with the results of previous years which confirms with this principle. Ausdrill ltd has used trend analysis and also provided results from previous year form comparison benefits for the users so that they can effectively measure the performance of the company (Wang 2014). Verifiability: This principle states that the treatments which are shown in the annual reports for different items must be verifiable by the users which can be done with the help of explanations provided in the notes to accounts section of the annual reports. In the case of Ausdrill ltd, proper notes to accounts are given by the company. Timeliness: The principle states that the financial statements should be provided to the users in a timely basis so that it can help the users in the decision-making process (Henderson et al. 2015). The timing of providing of the financial statements are normally at the end of the financial year of the company when the annual reports of the business are published showing the performance of the company during the year. Understandability: The financial statement should be such that it can be easily be understood by everyone. For the simplicity purpose graphs and presentations are includes so that they help in the process of understanding (Chen et al. 2014). Moreover, the business also follows generally accepted financial reporting framework so that it can promote simplicity and understandability for the users of the financial statement of the business. Conclusion The above analysis of the Conceptual framework in respect of the company provides a clear picture that the financial statements of Ausdrill ltd are showing true and fair view. The framework is used by most of the business to promote understanding and clarity among the shareholders about the performance of the company and also the funds allocations which are made by the company for different purposes. Ausdrill ltd follows the required framework and all the relevant information are their which makes the financial statements appropriate. In addition to this, the financial reports contain both fundamental qualitative features as well as Enhancing Qualitative features which adds more value to the annual reports of the company. Recommendations The recommendations which can be given to the company for further improvement of the reporting framework is given below in points form: The company needs to bring about more explanation regarding Employee benefit compensation which is shown in both short-term and long-term liability of the business. This is needed to be clarified by the management. The company needs to provide more information regarding the treatments of Joint venture transaction and follow all required standard related to the same. Reference Ausdrill.com.au. (2018).Home : Ausdrill. [online] Available at: https://www.ausdrill.com.au/ [Accessed 18 Apr. 2018]. Barth, M.E., 2013. Measurement in financial reporting: The need for concepts.Accounting Horizons,28(2), pp.331-352. Chen, C.W., Collins, D.W., Kravet, T. and Mergenthaler, R.D., 2014. Financial statement comparability and the efficiency of acquisition decisions.Contemporary Accounting Research. Christensen, H.B. and Nikolaev, V.V., 2013. Does fair value accounting for non-financial assets pass the market test?.Review of Accounting Studies,18(3), pp.734-775. Edmonds, T.P., Edmonds, C.D., Tsay, B.Y. and Olds, P.R., 2016.Fundamental managerial accounting concepts. McGraw-Hill Education. Henderson, S., Peirson, G., Herbohn, K. and Howieson, B., 2015.Issues in financial accounting. Pearson Higher Education AU. Hope, O.K., Thomas, W.B. and Vyas, D., 2013. Financial reporting quality of US private and public firms.The Accounting Review,88(5), pp.1715-1742. Lawrence, A., 2013. Individual investors and financial disclosure.Journal of Accounting and Economics,56(1), pp.130-147. Leuz, C. and Wysocki, P.D., 2016. The economics of disclosure and financial reporting regulation: Evidence and suggestions for future research.Journal of Accounting Research,54(2), pp.525-622. Sherraden, M. and Gilbert, N., 2016.Assets and the Poor: New American Welfare Policy. Routledge. Stice, E.K. and Stice, J.D., 2013.Intermediate accounting. Cengage Learning. Wang, C., 2014. Accounting standards harmonization and financial statement comparability: Evidence from transnational information transfer.Journal of Accounting Research,52(4), pp.955-992. Weil, R.L., Schipper, K. and Francis, J., 2013.Financial accounting: an introduction to concepts, methods and uses. Cengage Learning.

Friday, November 29, 2019

Alter Ego Essay Analysis Essay Example

Alter Ego Essay Analysis Essay The novel, Jane Eyre, describes the transformation from childhood to adulthood of an orphaned girl named Jane. Bertha Mason, is portrayed as the alter ego of the orphaned girl, Jane Eyre. This statement could be interrupted in many ways. One being-for an example- Bertha being a symbol and representation of Jane’s feeling in regard to the situation of her marrying Rochester. Another is some likeliness of both women’s actions. Jane Eyre may feel as if the matter of marriage is oppressing her. The dreams she received after the engagement suggests she secretly fears being submitted. Also, she may rage at the idea of losing her freedom and yielding to a higher power, which in this case is Rochester. Jane herself does not show all of these emotions, but they are animated through the actions of Bertha. Bertha tearing the bridal veil could stand for a metaphorical sign or warning for Jane as to not get married. On another note, Bertha is also the obstacle that stops the wedding from persisting on; she is not only a metaphorical element, but is also a physical obstacle as well. The male dominating aspect relates both Bertha and Jane. Bertha was tied and locked away, showing the bondage and effect Victorian marriage had on mental and emotional health. It suggests that it suffocated women and took away their freedom. Jane was forced and expected to concede at both Gateshead Hall and Lowood Institution. We will write a custom essay sample on Alter Ego Essay Analysis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Alter Ego Essay Analysis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Alter Ego Essay Analysis specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer She was harassed and also suggested by many that she not be so passionate. Knowing back then women for expected to fit the perfect imagine of civil, mannered, and self contained. Although, Jane was self righteous, opinionated, and passionate when younger. She learned to be well behaved and level headed at Lowood Institution the younger oppressed side of her reveals from her alter ego, Bertha. The likeliness of some events that occurred pertaining to both women does suggest that the madwoman in the attic is indeed the alter ego of Jane. Firstly, Bertha having been locked in a room for about ten years and goes insane. Jane gets locked in the red room at the young age of ten for about five minutes and lashes out hysterically. Secondly, after Bertha attacks Mr Mason she then gets tied up in the attic; Jane, when younger, received a threat to be restrained by her aunt if she did not yield. Lastly, the mad women is mental insane and Jane starts to hear voices. The madwoman in the attic has many symbols and roles that could be interpreted in this novel. Whether it is the horrors of Victorian marriage or the controlled element of the female gender. The statement states that Bertha is the alter ego to Jane Eyre and for many reasons. The madwoman in the attic plays a big role in representing Jane herself and her unconscious and internal conflicts. Including some key emotional events Jane went through in childhood. The relations between the two just goes to show that you can’t quite escape your past characteristics and suppress them for long.

Monday, November 25, 2019

Blood Agglutination

Blood Agglutination Free Online Research Papers Blood agglutination simply refers to the sticking together of erythrocytes as a result of antigen-antibody interaction. Proteins on the surface of the blood cells act as antigens, while antibodies in the plasma of some other blood types act to cause these cells to stick together (www.nutralegacy.com). Clot formation is a tremendously more complex process, involving the platelets, calcium ions, and about 7 different blood proteins. Blood agglutination occurs when certain blood types are mixed; clots are the result of damage to cells, when the body attempts, through a complex process, to prevent blood loss. The process by which the body prevents blood loss is referred to as coagulation. Coagulation involves the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) that prevents further blood loss from damaged tissues, blood vessels or organs. This is a complicated process with a cellular system comprised of cells called platelets that circulate in the blood and serve to form a platelet plug over damaged vessels and a second system based upon the actions of multiple proteins (called clotting factors) that act in concert to produce a fibrin clot. These two systems work in concert to form a clot; disorders in either system can yield disorders that cause either too much or too little clotting (www.health.howstuffworks.com) References: 1. www.health.howstuffworks.com/human-body/systems/ 2. www.nutralegacy.com/blog/tag/blood-clot-formation Research Papers on Blood AgglutinationAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementGenetic EngineeringRiordan Manufacturing Production PlanIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfOpen Architechture a white paperInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesThree Concepts of PsychodynamicHonest Iagos Truth through DeceptionNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This Nice

Friday, November 22, 2019

Causality by Hume and Kant Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Causality by Hume and Kant - Term Paper Example However, if the objects being discussed are appearances, it is safe to say that the regular conjunctions can be improved by combining it with common validity and necessity. This is, so that is perceived as a law, used in appearances, with the objective of potential experience that demands standard and hence necessarily legitimate rules. Considering that the concept of causality is constrained in its relation to experience, Kant required an argument to justify why the universal rules of connection are needed to actualize experience (Ariew & Watkins, 2009, 821). Kant could not contend that these rules are required for the understanding of any one object of appearance. As he (correctly) argued, better than Hume, the causal theory is strictly constraining and not in any way constitutive. As he argued in the prolegomena, he has no understanding of such a link of objects in themselves, how they can function as causes, and he can just conceptualize such attributes in appearances as such. In this context, Hume’s causality argument that one cannot see the power in one object is accurate, even if the object is basically an appearance. Consequently, Kant’s argument’s burden lies in his identifying some aspect of experience that demands that its objects adhere to universal rules linking them with each other (Ariew & Watkins, 2009, 828). Hume surely reasoned that experience is feasible even if objects are simply constantly related but not necessarily linked.

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

Health epidemiology & statistics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Health epidemiology & statistics - Essay Example It results from the Hepatitis C virus or the HCV. Although the infection is usually asymptomatic, its chronic phase is characterized by a scarred liver and the subsequent development of liver cirrhosis. This takes place after many years (Butt et al., 2010). Some of the key methods through which it is spread include blood-to-blood contact that may result from poor sterilization of medical equipment, intravenous use of drugs and transfusions. About 150 to 200 million people are infected with Hepatitis C all over the world. It is known to infect only human beings and chimpanzees. The virus is persistent in the liver of 85% of those who have been infected. Although there is no immunity against the disease, it can be treated and cured. However, there is still a high and increasing morbidity, co-morbidities, and mortality of the disease (Sweeting, De Angelis, Ades, & Hickman, 2009). The main factors that are associated with this are people, place and time, which form a significant part of the transmission mechanism. In relation to the people, there must be a susceptible host, who must have the necessary conditions of host defenses to enable disease prevention. There is also an important component of place, which refers to the availability of a conducive site for the microbial agent to adhere, enter and infect thus causing the disease within the susceptible host. In terms of time, the natural settings provide a favorable environment for the agent to multiply and survive within the reservoir (Panduro et al., 2010). APN affects the primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions of hepatitis C in the sense that it provides both individual and population prevention methods. Different strategies can be applied in the counselling, screening and therapeutic methods. Butt, S., Idrees, M., Akbar, H., ur Rehman, I., Awan, Z.,

Monday, November 18, 2019

Anthropology Final Exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Anthropology Final Exam - Essay Example Humor is used in every level of society, in every country in the world. It may be seen as a ploy to garner the interest or desire of other people, namely women, as it is often quoted as being a prerequisite for a man to make a woman laugh. According to the website www.makewomenlaugh.org (2010), â€Å"humor is the key to attracting women.† It is seen as a huge role taker in life in attraction in meeting as well as relationships. Humor begets laughter, begets attraction and so on. â€Å"Men who can make women laugh are irresistible†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (www.makewomenlaugh.org, 2010). In a study performed by Martin & Gray, (1996), they sought to prove that humor might not be appreciated without a boost from audience laughter in situation comedies. Martin & Gray state in their hypothesis that â€Å"genuinely funny material† would be shown to the test group, with the existence of audience laughter will increase the natural occurrence of laughter of the individual. Although publish ed in a renowned periodical, I believe that Martin & Gray are right in this hypothesis, which they later proved. However, what may be â€Å"genuinely funny material† to one person may be dry, boring and dull to another. Humor is not something that can be categorized into any single section. Although similar to the aforementioned comparison of beauty, what is funny to one may be offensive to another. Therefore, it appears that the influence of the masses is what makes a mass produced bit of material funny or not. This closes many doors to those who find humor in otherwise unfunny circumstances. When it comes to humor, I completely support taking the First Amendment as it is written. There are no exceptions needed to employ it in regards to humor. We were given the protected right of freedom of speech, regardless of whether one person or millions agree or disagree. It is no different than watching a television program, which is known by the popular masses to be funny, while oth ers see no humor in it whatever. If you do not like what you are watching or hearing, change the channel or walk away. It is that simple. We as humans do that every single day, in the grocery store, at work or at home. If we do not like it, we can either do something to try changing it or walking away from it. If our attempts at changing the circumstance we do not like fail, we still have the option of protecting ourselves from it by ignoring it. The right to the freedom of speech was granted us by our Founding Fathers and by God Himself, in His provision of free will. We as humans should be afforded this right at any cost, as the right to speak freely is as important as the right to walk down the street of our neighborhood or use the restroom as we need. It may offend some or make others cry with laughter, but it is a protection that we were first given by God and was reiterated into law by our Founding Fathers. It often appears that women find different types of humor less funny t han others do, while men see things differently. Women tend not to engage in public rituals of humor with the result of embarrassment or insult. Men seem to have the market cornered on this. Men more typically employ â€Å"verbal duels, ritual insults, practical jokes, pranks, slapstick, institutionalized clowning and institutionalized joking†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , whereas women generally focus on the activities and appearance of the men in

Saturday, November 16, 2019

Effect of School and Family Violence on Children

Effect of School and Family Violence on Children Introduction School savagery is the brutality that happens in the school premises. It incorporates distinctive issues, for example, posses, harassing, physical mischief to the school staff and educators, brutality between the school understudies, and so on. It is turning into a continually expanding issue these days, especially in schools wherein the understudies make utilization of firearms and blades. Schools were at first viewed as the most secure spot for the children; however as a result of this school savagery it is no more a sheltered spot. Undoubtedly, such an instance of school roughness is sufficiently uncommon and seen just in specific schools; all things considered, a check is still required for the same. We all realize that youngsters are sent to class to increase better information and for higher studies. Nonetheless, if understudies go to class and get vicious or they are being hassled by alternate understudies, then it is something that needs to be concerned exceedingly and at the top need level. This issue is essentially confronted by all. The administration powers and organization are still not ready to determine this issue of school savagery without the due backing of instructors and in addition folks. Folks, instructors and the understudies can teach themselves about school brutality and approaches to keep it from these sites. They are particularly intended to offer help, backing and direction to the educators and folks. Definition School viciousness is any type of savage action or exercises inside the school premises. It incorporates tormenting, physical misuses, verbal ill-uses, fight, shooting and so forth. Tormenting and physical ill-uses are the most widely recognized types of savagery that is connected with school roughness. However compelling cases, for example, shooting and homicide have additionally been recorded as school brutality. The term family brutality generally envelops abusive behavior at home, youngster ill-use, and elderly misuse. Presenting kids to abusive behavior at home legitimately constitutes criminal tyke misuse in a few states Whether or not a state characterizes a youngsters presentation to abusive behavior at home as kid ill-use, the youngsters who are presented to abusive behavior at home experience that viciousness with their eyes, ears, hearts, psyches and bodies. (Catani, 2008) Objectives Roughness against kids is broad, in distinctive structures. Some of these, to be specific the utilization of physical and mental brutality to train kids, are advocated by folks, educators and youngsters themselves. In spite of the fact that schools ought to assume a vital part in cultivating the insurance of kids from viciousness and misuse, every now and again educators resort to vicious practices as an approach to enhance youngsters execution and to train them. Specifically, instructors dont have particular preparing and ability to handle the showing procedure without utilizing any types of brutality. The Objective Outcomes; (Carrell, 2010) To comprehend the impacts of abusive behavior at home on kids To learn approaches to converse with and hear them out about their experience of abusive behavior at home To see how aggressive behavior at home influences you as a guardian To deal with protected, peaceful associations with your kids dad or mom To learn and hone new critical thinking strategies with youngsters To discover bolster and advising for you and your youngsters, Why this problem is important? Summary 1 Daniel study demonstrates that school savagery is high in young people ØŒStudents dont comprehend the danger they are doing in the activity of brutality, however suits strictly when the occurrence happened. Bears obligation here, educators and the school important, the studies demonstrates additionally Studies demonstrate that African-Americans brutal understudies for reasons, for example, the desire of the white individual and neediness Summary 2 D. Glicken study demonstrates that viciousness in young ladies more for youngsters with the presence of various studies in the USA .Showing that young ladies heaviest and concentrate on savagery completed by young ladies And assume liability for people in top of the line after associates in the school and companions Statistics demonstrate that the unlawful acts did by the young ladies and proportions and years did by these fierce wrongdoings. Summary 3 Says that mothers are occupied with neighbors Craft things, drinking espresso and conversing with their companions Do not see their kids They begin to grumble of them at 15 years old until 18, however essential issue starts when the children from youthful ages Continue developing and show up at the time of pre-adulthood All the studies demonstrate that the primary issues are brought on by the absence of feeling by folks. The arrangements that I discussed is that folks thinks about the youngsters until they grow up. (Catani, 2008) Summary 4 Dosomthing study demonstrates the 11 certainty about the social change on the youngsters the outcomes wont put the rate however i will expound on the savagery that uncovered the understudy on the school understudies were tormented at school, they felt dangerous at or on their approach to class, graders reported being undermined or harmed with a weapon on school property in any event once in the most recent year, the youngster utilization firearm at schools, arent the main ones in peril of school viciousness. Summary 5 The instances of savagery among school understudies , 1-there folks tyke impact with viciousness firstly in the home so they duplicate what they observed on the school in the event that they have issues on the home ,2- what the observed on the TV additionally the films effecting, 3-School brutality just happens among ineffectively instructed youngsters. 4-School roughness influences youngsters over all racial, social, efficient and geological boundaries.5-If you dont need inconvenience, you ought to simply look the other way when you see school savagery. 6-in the event that you overlook brutality in school. Summary 6 Everything understudies need creation abilities to carry on effectively in schools ,understudy to feel great and easily extraordinarily for those kid who manufacture personal5 to 7 years this study said that the home there folks measure of regardless of whether a tyke is prepared to start school. Examination has proposed that we must take a gander at all parts of youngsters lives— their psychological, social, enthusiastic, and engine advancement to get an exact thought of their availability to enter school Summary 7 There is a little however developing group of examination showing that youthful youngsters presented to roughness in the house are left candidly scarred and damaged. Furthermore, introduction to abusive behavior at home has a negative effect on neuro intellectual improvement, prompting lower insight scores in youthful youngsters. There is noteworthy cover between abusive behavior at home and kid ill-use, in families where one type of savagery exists; it is likely that alternate does as well. (Carrell, 2010) Summary 8 Dr. Fantuzzo talked about exploration on the commonness of youngsters presented to abusive behavior at home, opening his presentation with the accompanying inquiry: We see through the glass faintly and is the glass half void or half full? In doing as such, he was alluding to the considerable measure of data ailing in the field, especially in regards to brutality counteractive action and intercession. (Catani, 2008) Previous Studies Study 1 Childrens Coping Abilities One territory which needs to be considered in more detail is the particular adapting capacities of individual more seasoned youngsters. Analysts have started to examine reasons which may represent the level of strength demonstrated by a few youngsters. Taking after from this, a clinical and examination agreement is framing for survey this strength as being affected by more than one component. Found kids adapting capacities could be partitioned into three classifications. These are: dispositional qualities of the kid (for instance, capacity to change in accordance with new circumstances); bolster inside of the family framework (for instance, great association with one guardian); bolster figures outside the family framework (for instance, peers, relatives). There is additional confirmation that youngsters adapting capacities can shift as an element of their formative stage. Research with preschool kids has shown that disturbances in their typical family working are connected with malad aptive practices, both in the home and other social circumstances. (Carrell, 2010) Summary of Study 1 An expansive outline of the impacts on offspring of either seeing, Infants are responsive to their surroundings; when bothered they cry, decline to bolster or withdraw and are especially helpless to passionate hardship. Youngsters adapting capacities could be partitioned into three classifications. These are: dispositional traits of the kid (for instance, capacity to conform to new circumstances); bolster inside of the family framework (for instance, great association with one guardian); bolster figures outside the family framework (for instance, peers, relatives). It is just by building up a more extensive definitional and examination base for kid ill-use and aggressive behavior at home issues, and putting them inside of the structure of family brutality by and large, with comparing sufficient assets, in a manner which will guarantee a superior future for youngsters who live with entomb parental clash. (Catani, 2008) Study Adolescents When kids achieve youth, their subjective aptitudes and assets for adjustment have generally come to a phase of improvement which envelops both their own family flow and outside informal organizations, for example, associate gatherings and school impacts. As such, they are getting to be mindful that there are distinctive methods for considering, feeling and acting on the planet from those to which they have been uncovered. On the other hand, the inquiry is whether the behavioral and social learning procedures of teenagers, who have been presented to aggressive behavior at home, have turn out to be entrenched to the point that they think that it hard to take part in more positive methods for social collaboration. (Carrell, 2010) Summary Study 2 Teenagers see the viciousness as their guardians issue and they frequently view the casualty as being mindful. Continuous clash between folks has a significant impact on pre-adult improvement and future grown-up conduct, and can be the most grounded indicator of rough misconduct. Then again, it must be underscored that, while there is doubtlessly youngsters who either witness and/or are casualties of aggressive behavior at home are all influenced as far as their behavioral, intellectual and enthusiastic conformity, the examination is still not sufficiently definitive to establish that there is a complete situated reaction for sex, age or phase of improvement (Catani, 2008) Final Summary They are amazingly helpless. Babies, why should starting create essential endeavors to relate reasons to passionate expressions, can regularly be seen to have behavioral issues, for example, continuous ailment, serious modesty, low self regard and inconvenience in childcare and also social issues, for example, hitting, gnawing or being factious. Sex contrasts can rise at this stage. By preschool age, youngsters accept that everything rotates around them and is created by them. On the off chance that they witness roughness or ill-use, they accept they have created it. (Carrell, 2010) Conclusion Youngsters reactions to seeing and/or encountering aggressive behavior at home between folks differ impressively. No ordinary responses rise, albeit there is sufficient confirmation that introduction to abusive behavior at home can and frequently does impact youngsters conduct unfavorably. Be that as it may, at different phases of their improvement, kids are differentially ready to comprehend and adapt to what is occurring between their guardians. On the other hand, to completely comprehend the degree of the impacts of abusive behavior at home on kids, there are a few zones which need to be considered for future examination. Initially, all the more needs to be thought about the rate and pervasiveness of youngster witnesses, and about the interrelationship between seeing roughness and encountering different types of kid ill-use and disregard. Bibliography Carrell, S. E. (2010). Externalities in the classroom: How children exposed to domestic violence affect everyones kids. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 2(1), 211-228. http://www.econ.ucdavis.edu/faculty/scarrell/domesticviolence.pdf Catani, C. J. (2008). Family violence, war, and natural disasters: A study of the effect of extreme stress on childrens mental health in Sri Lanka. BMC psychiatry, 8(1), 33. http://www.pubfacts.com/detail/18454851/Family-violence-war-and-natural-disasters:-a-study-of-the-effect-of-extreme-stress-on-childrens-ment

Wednesday, November 13, 2019

I Am an American NOT of Caucasian Descent :: Personal Narrative Writing

I Am an American NOT of Caucasian Descent What does it mean to be American? What does the word â€Å"American† mean? If I say I am American, does that mean I am obligated to fight for America in a war? Does that mean I would not do anything against this country? How permanent is my status of being an American? When asked, I always say I am American, based on the fact that I was born here and that is what my birth certificate is supposed to prove. But then why don’t I also say that I am also Mexican and Indian, as my upbringings and family have been more of these cultures than of American culture? Until college, I had lived in Michigan all my life. Visiting Canadian friends the twenty-minute drive away was a regular family outing. My mother usually had the task of driving through Customs, as she, though the child of Mexican immigrants, spoke without an accent. â€Å"Citizenship?† The customs official would ask. â€Å"U.S.† My mother would reply. â€Å"All four of you?† Was the typical response, as the official would look directly at my dad, whose physical features do not hide the fact that he was born in India. â€Å"Yes,† My mother would reply, as she handed over the proper paperwork. It was not until the age of eight that I wondered enough to ask my mom why she did not reply â€Å"American† to the customs official’s question. She responded that the term â€Å"American† is vague. A person from Canada has an equal right to identify himself or herself with the term that reflects the name of our shared continent. Using the term â€Å"U.S.† is both true and specific. My mother’s opinion is just one of the many views that exist on the term. As I grew up, I began with a very chauvinistic pride in my birth country.

Monday, November 11, 2019

Wise Travel Tips And Tricks From Frequent Travelers

Frequent Travelers Many people have vacation horror stories to tell. Usually, poor planning is the reason behind such negative talk. The tips listed here will help you to have an enjoyable vacation experience. Leave your valuables at home. If you decide to bring valuables, you could lose them, or they could even be stolen. Air travel requires a bit of planning. If an airport Is In a major city, It can be quite difficult to get to, especially during rush hour when traffic is at its heaviest. Pack what you can the night before our flight so you are sure to be ready to leave the next day.Dont walt until the last minute to prepare for your flight. There is little else that could be worse than not making your flight. Anytime you are going to be driving to a different city before going on a cruise, check to see if there is a hotel that has fee parking, and get there the night before. You may want to contact the hotel administration about potential deals that they offer on parking even if i t doesn't look like any are available. Prior to flying, make a quick trip to the gym. Being on a flight for a long period of time can be iresome.Your legs and back can cramp up from sitting a long time. Working out prior to a long flight can relax your body and reduce uncomfortable feelings in your body due to the flight. Always go out of your way to tip any bell station and housekeeper appropriately. The typical tip is a dollar per bag of luggage and anywhere from two to five dollars per day for housekeeping. Doing so will ensure that you have a nice relationship with both during your hotel stay. Stores tend to overcharge for these Items, and the space saved Is minimal, so save the money.Try olding your clothes in innovative ways that will take up less space. Following these tips can help you find even more room In your bags. Taking sleeping pills will help you get through a long flight. This can help you to sleep in a situation that many are uncomfortable In, on board an airplane Take a mild sleeping pill to get you through the flight. Nothing too strong, but enough to make you drowsy. Refrain from taking sleeping medication before you actually take off. If your flight Is delayed, you will likely need to remain wide awake to make other arrangements.Make sure that your assports are valid. Different areas of the world have different rules regarding passports. Most countries will not permit you to enter with an expired passport if it is within a given time frame. These periods usually range anywhere from a year to three months. The reason for some of the worst stories about traveling happen because the traveler didnt think ahead and plan correctly. You now have the advice needed to take the worry from your vacation and find the relaxation that you deserve. Wise Travel Tips And Tricks From Frequent Travelers By bassantbadr planning.If an airport is in a major city, it can be quite difficult to get to, especially your flight so you are sure to be ready to leave t he next day. Don't wait until the last overcharge for these items, and the space saved is minimal, so save the money. Try tips can help you find even more room in your bags. Taking sleeping pills will help uncomfortable in, on board an airplane. Take a mild sleeping pill to get you through sleeping medication before you actually take off. If your flight is delayed, you will because the traveler didn't think ahead and plan correctly. You now have the advice

Saturday, November 9, 2019

Charles Darwin’s Hypothesis

This video is a narrative that clarifies different logical certainties that present major issues for the hypothesis of advancement. This video arrangement pursues a few researchers as they present logical proof that firmly supports the hypothesis of insightful outline. All through the narrative they clarify how the finches of the Galapagos Island, the cell flagellum, the DNA strand, and different subjects demonstrate that the odds of development making this unpredictable universe are about outlandish. To start with, these researchers examine the finches that enlivened Charles Darwin's hypothesis of development. They altogether clarify how the adjustments of the fowl's snouts were a consequence of characteristic choice, which could help the general populace's noses fundamentally change. In any case, characteristic determination has never been in charge of making the advancement from one animal varieties another. These adjustments were maybe realized to better the survival of this types of flying creatures on the island by permitting them better access to the sustenance sources. The way that the establishing father's own hypothesis that assembled development has been disproven by science should reveal insight into how defective this hypothesis, that is frequently displayed as a logical law, truly is. A second developmental issue exhibited by these researcher, and maybe the most intense, is that of the cell flagellum. Propositions researcher clarify how the flagellum functions much like a typical detachable engine, with the exception of on a minuscule level. Each part to this cell mobilizer is fundamental to the task of the engine. While a few sections that make up the flagellum are found in different territories of the cell and could be barrowed for the flagellar organization, the greater part are totally new to the cell. Per the generally excepted theoretical procedure of advancement, the parts for this fifty or more piece small scale engine would need to independently create over a lot of time. The main issue with this is, as per Darwin's hypothesis, survival of the fittest implies that these basically futile parts would be killed from the phone by normal determination while sitting tight for alternate pieces to build up that would make the flagellum a working engine. The multifaceted nature of this splendidly composed miniaturized scale engine is an extremely strong contention for the instance of savvy plan. Another issue that these researchers banter in this film is that of the DNA strand. They portray the intricacy of the DNA coding, which is basically its own dialect. The video clarifies the procedure of DNA translating and protein get together by means of consummately collapsed amino corrosive chains. The enormous issue is who outlined this dialect of DNA? The odds of such a mind boggling framework, which is so key the way toward creating and proceeding with life, advancing with no insightful outline is incredible. In the recordings these researchers talk about their very own voyages of abandoning the conviction of development to having confidence in a wise fashioner. They talk about how these issues introduced consolidate to make it somewhat difficult to hold to the conviction of advancement. Understanding the contentions that they clarified in this video has encouraged build up my conviction and thankfulness for the shrewd plan discovered all through our universe. This narrative completes a fantastic activity of showing certainties and the measurable numbers behind these realities, which incredibly helped me understand their importance. In the wake of watching this video, I for one trust that science has over and again supported the view purpose of wise plan. Notwithstanding, our instruction frameworks keep on showing the hypothesis of development as though it were a logical law. As was raised in the video, numerous people may never at any point think to address whether science and development can correspond, for the negligible actuality that it is the thing that they are instructed all through their whole instructive adventure. It is exceptionally uncommon that the logical certainties are reasonably displayed to understudies, and that the understudies are allowed build up their sincere beliefs from these realities. Also, this video made me contemplate and question why more people don't significantly think about taking a gander at these realities to discover reality for themselves. I inferred that there might be two key reasons this is the situation. The main, being that numerous people today don't endeavor to discover reality for themselves. Numerous aimlessly pursue what they are instructed by people, that are viewed as canny people, similar to reality. Be that as it may, I think others, for example, these societally esteemed clever sources, simply swing to advancement since it gives them a route around recognizing God as the wise creator for what we see surrounding us consistently. At long last, this video better outfitted me with contentions to shield my confidence utilizing science. There are times when people will provoke me about my confidence in God as the wise maker of the universe. Since I better comprehend the science exhibited all through this narrative, I can challenge these doubters with a contention that depends on logical certainties as opposed to clarifying it in a way that may accentuate my own convictions.

Wednesday, November 6, 2019

Of Mice And Men Essays (532 words) - English-language Films

Of Mice And Men Essays (532 words) - English-language Films Of Mice And Men George In the end of Of Mice and Men there are three choices the protaganist, George, must decide on. He either must run away with Lennie, not do anything and let the others kill Lennie, or kill Lennie himself. His final decision reflects his personality and his respect for his friends. As George's character develops throughout the story he realizes the outcome before it even happens. George's solution to Lennie's mistake becomes his only reasonable choice. George realizes the solution after predicting consequences of each potential option. George's first option was to tell Lennie to run away after meeting in the brush. If George was to choose this option, both Lennie and George would have gotten shot. It would have looked like they planned the killing of Curley's wife together. There were no ties between Curley or anyone on the ranch, so nothing would have stopped Curley from putting a bullet in both of their heads. George obviously didn't want to die, so running away would be a bad choice. Secondly, George could have stayed at the ranch with Candy and done nothing for Lennie. He knew Lennie was going to be hunted and killed. He knew it from the moment he saw Curley's wife lying dead in the barn. It was clear to George that there was no way out for Lennie. Also, George knew that he could not live with himself if he let the man he was responsible for be killed by Curley. So, opting to do nothing for Lennie would have been a regrettable choice for George. Lennie didn't know what he was doing and it was not fair that he should be killed out of hatred. George had learned a lot from Candy when he said, I ought to of shot that dog myself, George. I shouldn't ought to of let no stranger shoot my dog.(Chapter 3, 61). Candy had taught him that if Lennie's death was inevitable, it might as well be done by someone who knows him and cares about him. Lennie had to be killed out of love. The third only possible choice was for George to be forced to kill his best friend. This was a hard decision for George to make, and after he made it, he had even a harder time carrying it out. And George raised the gun and steadied it, and he brought the muzzle of it close to the back of Lennie's head. The hand shook violently, but his face set and his hand steadied. He pulled the trigger.......George shivered and looked at the gun, and then he threw it from him, back up on the bank, near the pile of old ashes.(Chapter 6,106). Even though shooting his best friend was a difficult, heart-wrenching occurrence, he knew he had done nothing wrong. It was the only way the 'problem' that Lennie had with hurting people could be resolved with no loose ends and no guilty consciences. George may have been harsh in solving the 'problem', but he did the right thing. Bibliography Of Mice and Men. Dir. Gary Sinise. MGM/UA, 1992. Steinbeck, John. Of Mice and Men. New York: Penguin, 1965.

Monday, November 4, 2019

Business Organistions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business Organistions - Essay Example At the end of the day, the savings that comes from establishing good leadership skills could result to increasing revenue generation on the part of the company. In general, there is simply no ground or rules behind choosing the best leadership style. To become an effective leader, a manager should be able to search for the type of leadership approach that works best for them. Often times, choosing the best leadership style depends on the manager’s personality, working environment and the members of the team. To avoid wasting time, money, and effort associated with the need to go through the consequences of mismanagement, this study will discuss and elaborate the different leadership techniques used in today’s business organization. In the process of discussing each type of leadership approach, situational examples will be provided to give the readers a better understanding of each leadership techniques that will be discussed in the study. Transformational leadership style is unique in the sense that this approach has four components known as: (1) charisma or idealized influence; (2) inspirational motivation; (3) intellectual stimulation; (4) and individual consideration. (Bass, 1998; Bass et al., 1996; Bass, 1985) Personal charisma is a significant characteristic of a good leader since it is a form of referrent power which could enable a manager to effectively attract his/her subordinates to seriously cooperate with the leader in order to make the organizational goal attainable. (Palmer et al., 2001; Posakoff & Schriesheim, 1985) Considering that transformational leaders are intellectually inclined, this type of leaders tend to go beyond what is happening around his environment since they have the ability to implement new ideas whenever necessary (Johannsen, 2004) aside from being flexible with organizational changes that may

Saturday, November 2, 2019

Marketing Strategy for the redevelopment of Tottenham Court Road Essay

Marketing Strategy for the redevelopment of Tottenham Court Road - Essay Example tal marketing according to Peattie (1992), who says Green Marketing should mix with any other marketing that a marketing manager would like to focus upon because Green Marketing is â€Å"The management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying the requirements of customers and society, in a profitable and sustainable way.† (p. 11). It is the high priority marketing of our generation. But Lovelock (2000) insists on service marketing, because continuous services are necessary in modern economy. He quotes Albrecht: â€Å"Ours is a service economy and it has been one for some time† (p. 1). Fundamental strategic position of marketing in this context depends on the uncertainty created by present global trend. Such consideration â€Å"†¦has been attributed to the increased uncertainty that businessmen feel these days when they can contemplate the future – what will government intrusion, roaring inflation, or the sudden appearance of competition from abroad do to them next?† Weitz and Wensley (1984, p.1). Strategic Marketing suits here due to the importance and all-encompassing significance of the region involved. It is necessary because of the high level in which marketing is conducted and marketing here is aiming at a very long term commitment from customers. They are built-in spaces and immediate disposal or re-disposal is not possible. In many cases, it could be a life-time commitment with investment and cannot be taken lightly hence, time horizon has to be taken into consideration. â€Å"Strategies last for long periods of time, while tactics have short durations. Strategic plans might have a ten year horizon, in contrast to annual marketing plans that deal primarily with tactical issues,† ibid (p.3). Marketing under these circumstances cannot be abrupt due to its ongoing nature. It will be a long term commitment by my firm and new opportunities or threats to opportunities keep appearing for a long time and it is necessary for the marketing

Thursday, October 31, 2019

Analysis of an Historian's Arguement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Analysis of an Historian's Arguement - Essay Example The Rabbinites based a legal and religious system on the Talmud, which is a practice that continues to the modern day. It is the socio-cultural and political relationship between these two sects that Marina Rustow surveys in her in her historical work Heresy and the Politics of Community1. Her scholarship about marriage in particular shows that arranged-type marriages demonstrate a series of strategic maneuvers to accomplish the goals of families, regardless of religious affiliations. In many ways, and through many primary sources, Rustow shows the Jewish marriage practice at the time to be very much a business-like decision, with rights, legal proxies, and contracts2. Rustow’s extensive details of the marriages between members of the two communities demonstrates broad yet through historical scholarship, and will leave a lasting impact on how the historians view the relationship between the Rabbinites and Qaraites. Rustow’s conclusions give us reason to change our perception of the Rabbinites and Qaraites as socially competing or mutually exclusive. Marriage, a cohesive factor bringing people legally and spiritually together, seemed to soften the boundaries between â€Å"Rabbanite† and â€Å"Qaraite† such that the two categories were neither absolute nor mutually exclusive. She gives the example of Yosef who became a Rabbanite, to, as she says, â€Å"in order to facilitate his transition to the Jewish community in Fustat†3. This anecdote suggests that the lines between Qaraite, which is the community Yosef had grown up a part of, and Rabbanite, the community that he ultimately joins to transition into the Jewish community, were not as starkly opposed as is traditionally thought. In fact, it may be said that instead of treating each other as theological and political enemies, the two groups depended on each other financially and socially for support. In the chapter o n marriages, Rustow makes this clear by investigating and commenting on the extent to which

Tuesday, October 29, 2019

Lieducation in preliterate societies Essay Example for Free

Lieducation in preliterate societies Essay Education, History of, theories, methods, and administration of schools and other agencies of information from ancient times to the present. Education developed from the human struggle for survival and enlightenment. It may be formal or informal. Informal education refers to the general social process by which human beings acquire the knowledge and skills needed to function in their culture. Formal education refers to the process by which teachers instruct students in courses of study within institutions. Before the invention of reading and writing, people lived in an environment in which they struggled to survive against natural forces, animals, and other humans. To survive, preliterate people developed skills that grew into cultural and educational patterns. For a particular group’s culture to continue into the future, people had to transmit it, or pass it on, from adults to children. The earliest educational processes involved sharing information about gathering food and providing shelter; making weapons and other tools; learning language; and acquiring the values, behavior, and religious rites or practices of a given culture. Through direct, informal education, parents, elders, and priests taught children the skills and roles they would need as adults. These lessons eventually formed the moral codes that governed behavior. Since they lived before the invention of writing, preliterate people used an oral tradition, or story telling, to pass on their culture and history from one generation to the next. By using language, people learned to create and use symbols, words, or signs to express their ideas. When these symbols grew into pictographs and letters, human beings created a written language and made the great cultural leap to literacy. IIIEDUCATION IN ANCIENT AFRICA AND ASIA In ancient Egypt, which flourished from about 3000 BC to about 500 BC, priests in temple schools taught not only religion but also the principles of writing, the sciences, mathematics, and architecture. Similarly in India, priests conducted most of the formal education. Beginning in about 1200 BC Indian priests taught the principles of the Veda, the sacred texts of Hinduism, as well as science, grammar, and philosophy. Formal education in China dates to about 2000 BC, though it thrived particularly during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, from 770 to 256 BC (see China: The Eastern Zhou). The curriculum stressed philosophy, poetry, and religion, in accord with the teachings of Confucius, Laozi (Lao-tzu), and other philosophers. IVEDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECE Historians have looked to ancient Greece as one of the origins of Western formal education. The Iliad and the Odyssey, epic poems attributed to Homer and written sometime in the 8th century BC, created a cultural tradition that gave the Greeks a sense of group identity. In their dramatic account of Greek struggles, Homer’s epics served important educational purposes. The legendary Greek warriors depicted in Homer’s work, such as Agamemnon, Odysseus, and Achilles, were heroes who served as models for the young Greeks. Ancient Greece was divided into small and often competing city-states, or poleis, such as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. Athens emphasized a humane and democratic society and education, but only about one-third of the people in Athens were free citizens. Slaves and residents from other countries or city-states made up the rest of the population. Only the sons of free citizens attended school. The Athenians believed a free man should have a liberal education in order to perform his civic duties and for his own personal development. The education of women depended upon the customs of the particular Greek city-state. In Athens, where women had no legal or economic rights, most women did not attend school. Some girls, however, were educated at home by tutors. Slaves and other noncitizens had either no formal education or very little. Sparta, the chief political enemy of Athens, was a dictatorship that used education for military training and drill. In contrast to Athens, Spartan girls received more schooling but it was almost exclusively athletic training to prepare them to be healthy mothers of future Spartan soldiers. In the 400s BC, the Sophists, a group of wandering teachers, began to teach in Athens. The Sophists claimed that they could teach any subject or skill to anyone who wished to learn it. They specialized in teaching grammar, logic, and rhetoric, subjects that eventually formed the core of the liberal arts. The Sophists were more interested in preparing their students to argue persuasively and win  arguments than in teaching principles of truth and morality. Unlike the Sophists, the Greek philosopher Socrates sought to discover and teach universal principles of truth, beauty, and goodness. Socrates, who died in 399 BC, claimed that true knowledge existed within everyone and needed to be brought to consciousness. His educational method, called the Socratic method, consisted of asking probing questions that forced his students to think deeply about the meaning of life, truth, and justice. In 387 BC Plato, who had studied under Socrates, established a school in Athens called the Academy. Plato believed in an unchanging world of perfect ideas or universal concepts. He asserted that since true knowledge is the same in every place at every time, education, like truth, should be unchanging. Plato described his educational ideal in the Republic, one of the most notable works of Western philosophy. Plato’s Republic describes a model society, or republic, ruled by highly intelligent philosopher-kings. Warriors make up the republic’s second class of people. The lowest class, the workers, provide food and the other products for all the people of the republic. In Plato’s ideal educational system, each class would receive a different kind of instruction to prepare for their various roles in society. In 335 BC Plato’s student, Aristotle, founded his own school in Athens called the Lyceum. Believing that human beings are essentially rational, Aristotle thought people could discover natural laws that governed the universe and then follow these laws in their lives. He also concluded that educated people who used reason to make decisions would lead a life of moderation in which they avoided dangerous extremes. In the 4th century BC Greek orator Isocrates developed a method of education designed to prepare students to be competent orators who could serve as government officials. Isocrates’s students studied rhetoric, politics, ethics, and history. They examined model orations and practiced public speaking. Isocrates’s methods of education directly influenced such Roman educational theorists as Cicero and Quintilian. VEDUCATION IN ANCIENT ROME While the Greeks were developing their civilization in the areas surrounding the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the Romans were gaining control of the Italian peninsula and areas of the western Mediterranean. The Greeks’ education focused on the study of philosophy. The Romans, on the other hand, were preoccupied with war, conquest, politics, and civil administration. As in Greece, only a minority of Romans attended school. Schooling was for those who had the money to pay tuition and the time to attend classes. While girls from wealthy families occasionally learned to read and write at home, boys attended a primary school, called aludus. In secondary schools boys studied Latin and Greek grammar taught by Greek slaves, called pedagogues. After primary and secondary school, wealthy young men often attended schools of rhetoric or oratory that prepared them to be leaders in government and administration. Cicero, a 1st century BC Roman senator, combined Greek and Roman ideas on how to educate orators in his book De Oratore. Like Isocrates, Cicero believed orators should be educated in liberal arts subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, and astronomy. He also asserted that they should study ethics, military science, natural science, geography, history, and law. Quintilian, an influential Roman educator who lived in the 1st century AD, wrote that education should be based on the stages of individual development from childhood to adulthood. Quintilian devised specific lessons for each stage. He also advised teachers to make their lessons suited to the student’s readiness and ability to learn new material. He urged teachers to motivate students by making learning interesting and attractive. VIANCIENT JEWISH EDUCATION Education among the Jewish people also had a profound influence on Western learning. The ancient Jews had great respect for the printed word and believed that God revealed truth to them in the Bible. Most information on ancient Jewish goals and methods of education comes from the Bible and the Talmud, a book of religious and civil law. Jewish religious leaders, known as rabbis, advised parents to teach their children religious beliefs, law, ethical practices, and vocational skills. Both boys and girls were introduced to religion by studying the Torah, the most sacred document of Judaism. Rabbis taught in schools within synagogues, places of worship and religious study. VIIMEDIEVAL EDUCATION During the Middle Ages, or the medieval period, which lasted roughly from the 5th to the 15th century, Western society and education were heavily shaped by Christianity, particularly the Roman Catholic Church. The Church operated parish, chapel, and monastery schools at the elementary level. Schools in monasteries and cathedrals offered secondary education. Much of the teaching in these schools was directed at learning Latin, the old Roman language used by the church in its ceremonies and teachings. The church provided some limited opportunities for the education of women in religious communities or convents. Convents had libraries and schools to help prepare nuns to follow the religious rules of their communities. Merchant and craft guilds also maintained some schools that provided basic education and training in specific crafts. Knights received training in military tactics and the code of chivalry. As in the Greek and Roman eras, only a minority of people went to school during the medieval period. Schools were attended primarily by persons planning to enter religious life such as priests, monks, or nuns. The vast majority of people were serfs who served as agricultural workers on the estates of feudal lords. The serfs, who did not attend school, were generally illiterate (see Serfdom). In the 10th and early 11th centuries, Arabic learning had a pronounced influence on Western education. From contact with Arab scholars in North Africa and Spain, Western educators learned new ways of thinking about mathematics, natural science, medicine, and philosophy. The Arabic number system was especially important, and became the foundation of Western arithmetic. Arab scholars also preserved and translated into Arabic the works of such influential Greek scholars as Aristotle, Euclid, Galen, and Ptolemy. Because many of these works had disappeared from Europe by the Middle Ages, they might have been lost forever if Arab scholars such as Avicenna and Averroes had not preserved them. In the 11th century medieval scholars developed Scholasticism, a philosophical and educational movement that used both human reason and revelations from the Bible. Upon encountering the works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers from Arab scholars, the Scholastics attempted to reconcile Christian theology with Greek philosophy. Scholasticism reached its high point in the Summa Theologiae of Saint Thomas Aquinas, a 13th century Dominican theologian who taught at the University of Paris. Aquinas reconciled the authority of religious faith, represented by the Scriptures, with Greek reason, represented by Aristotle. Aquinas described the teacher’s vocation as one that combines faith, love, and learning. The work of Aquinas and other Scholastics took place in the medieval institutions of higher education, the universities. The famous European universities of Paris, Salerno, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Padua grew out of the Scholastics-led intellectual revival of the 12th and 13th centuries. The name university comes from the Latin word universitas, or associations, in reference to the associations that students and teachers organized to discuss academic issues. Medieval universities offered degrees in the liberal arts and in professional studies such as theology, law, and medicine. VIIIEDUCATION DURING THE RENAISSANCE The Renaissance, or rebirth of learning, began in Europe in the 14th century and reached its height in the 15th century. Scholars became more interested in the humanist features—that is, the secular or worldly rather than the religious aspects—of the Greek and Latin classics. Humanist educators found their models of literary style in the classics. The Renaissance was a particularly powerful force in Italy, most notably in art, literature, and architecture. In literature, the works of such Italian writers as Dante Aleghieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio became especially important. Humanist educators designed teaching methods to prepare well-rounded, liberally educated persons. Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus was particularly influential. Erasmus believed that understanding and conversing about the meaning of literature was more important than memorizing it, as had been required at many of the medieval religious schools. He advised teachers to study such fields as archaeology, astronomy, mythology, history, and Scripture. The invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century made books more widely available and increased literacy rates (see Printing). But school attendance did not increase greatly during the Renaissance. Elementary schools educated middle-class children while lower-class children received little, if any, formal schooling. Children of the nobility and upper classes attended humanist secondary schools. Educational opportunities for women improved slightly during the Renaissance, especially for the upper classes. Some girls from wealthy families attended schools of the royal court or received private lessons at home. The curriculum studied by young women was still based on the belief that only certain subjects, such as art, music, needlework, dancing, and poetry, were suited for females. For working-class girls, especially rural peasants, education was still limited to training in household duties such as cooking and sewing. IXEDUCATION DURING THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION The religious Reformation of the 16th century marked a decline in the authority of the Catholic Church and contributed to the emergence of the middle classes in Europe. Protestant religious reformers, such as John Calvin, Martin Luther, and Huldreich Zwingli, rejected the authority of the Catholic pope and created reformed Christian, or Protestant, churches. In their ardent determination to instruct followers to read the Bible in their native language, reformers extended literacy to the masses. They established vernacular primary schools that offered a basic curriculum of reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion for children in their own language. Vernacular schools in England, for example, used English to teach their pupils. As they argued with each other and with the Roman Catholics on religious matters, Protestant educators wrote catechisms—primary books that summarized their religious doctrine—in a question and answer format. While the vernacular schools educated both boys and girls at the primary level, upper-class boys attended preparatory and secondary schools that continued to emphasize Latin and Greek. The gymnasium in Germany, the Latin grammar school in England, and the lycee in France were preparatory schools that taught young men the classical languages of Latin and Greek required to enter universities. Martin Luther believed the state, family, and school, along with the church, were leaders of the Reformation. Since the family shaped children’s character, Luther encouraged parents to teach their children reading and religion. Each family should pray together, read the Bible, study the catechism, and practice a useful trade. Luther believed that government should assist schools in educating literate, productive, and religious citizens. One of Luther’s colleagues, German religious reformer Melanchthon, wrote the school code for the German region of Wurttemberg, which became a model for other regions of Germany and influenced education throughout Europe. According to this code, the government was responsible for supervising schools and licensing teachers. The Protestant reformers retained the dual-class school system that had developed in the Renaissance. Vernacular schools provided primary instruction for the lower classes, and the various classical humanist and Latin grammar schools prepared upper-class males for higher education. XEDUCATIONAL THEORY IN THE 17TH CENTURY Educators of the 17th century developed new ways of thinking about education. Czech education reformer Jan Komensky, known as Comenius, was particularly influential. A bishop of the Moravian Church, Comenius escaped religious persecution by taking refuge in Poland, Hungary, Sweden, and The Netherlands. He created a new educational philosophy called Pansophism, or universal knowledge, designed to bring about worldwide understanding and peace. Comenius advised teachers to use children’s senses rather than memorization in instruction. To make learning interesting for children, he wrote The Gate of Tongues Unlocked (1631), a book for teaching Latin in the student’s own language. He also wrote Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658; The Visible World in Pictures, 1659) consisting of illustrations that labeled objects in both their Latin and vernacular names. It was one of the first illustrated books written especially for children. The work of English philosopher John Locke influenced education in Britain and North America. Locke examined how people acquire ideas in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). He asserted that at birth the human mind is a blank slate, or tabula rasa, and empty of ideas. We acquire knowledge, he argued, from the information about the objects in the world that our senses bring to us. We begin with simple ideas and then combine them into more complex ones. Locke believed that individuals acquire knowledge most easily when they first consider simple ideas and then gradually combine them into more complex ones. In Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1697), Locke recommended practical learning to prepare people to manage their social, economic, and political affairs efficiently. He believed that a sound education began in early childhood and insisted that the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic be gradual and cumulative. Locke’s curriculum included conversational learning of foreign languages, especially French, mathematics, history, physical education, and games. XIEDUCATION DURING THE ENLIGHTENMENT The Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century produced important changes in education and educational theory. During the Enlightenment, also called the Age of Reason, educators believed people could improve their lives and society by using their reason, their powers of critical thinking. The Enlightenment’s ideas had a significant impact on the American Revolution (1775-1783) and early educational policy in the United States. In particular, American philosopher and scientist Benjamin Franklin emphasized the value of utilitarian and scientific education in American schools. Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, stressed the importance of civic education to the citizens of a democratic nation. The Enlightenment principles that considered education as an instrument of social reform and improvement remain fundamental characteristics of American education policy. XIIEDUCATION IN THE 19TH CENTURY The foundations of modern education were established in the 19th century. Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, inspired by the work of French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, developed an educational method based on the natural world and the senses. Pestalozzi established schools in Switzerland and Germany to educate children and train teachers. He affirmed that schools should resemble secure and loving homes. Like Locke and Rousseau, Pestalozzi believed that thought began with sensation and that teaching should use the senses. Holding that children should study the objects in their natural environment, Pestalozzi developed a so-called â€Å"object lesson† that involved exercises in learning form, number, and language. Pupils determined and traced an object’s form, counted objects, and named them. Students progressed from these lessons to exercises in drawing, writing, adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and reading. Pestalozzi employed the following principles in teaching: (1) begin with the concrete object before introducing abstract concepts; (2) begin with the immediate environment before dealing with what is distant and remote; (3) begin with easy exercises before introducing complex ones; and (4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and slowly. American educator Henry Barnard, the first U. S. Commissioner of Education, introduced Pestalozzi’s ideas to the United States in the late 19th century. Barnard also worked for the establishment of free public high schools for students of all classes of American society. German philosopher Johann Herbart emphasized moral education and designed a highly structured teaching technique. Maintaining that education’s primary goal is moral development, Herbart claimed good character rested on knowledge while misconduct resulted from an inadequate education. Knowledge, he said, should create an â€Å"apperceptive mass†Ã¢â‚¬â€a network of ideas—in a person’s mind to which new ideas can be added. He wanted to include history, geography, and literature in the school curriculum as well as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Based on his work, Herbart’s followers designed a five-step teaching method: (1) prepare the pupils to be ready for the new lesson, (2) present the new lesson, (3) associate the new lesson with ideas studied earlier, (4) use examples to illustrate the lesson’s major points, and (5) test pupils to ensure they had learned the new lesson. AKindergarten German educator Friedrich Froebel created the earliest kindergarten, a form of preschool education that literally means â€Å"child’s garden† in German. Froebel, who had an unhappy childhood, urged teachers to think back to their own childhoods to find insights they could use in their teaching. Froebel studied at Pestalozzi’s institute in Yverdon, Switzerland, from 1808 to 1810. While agreeing with Pestalozzi’s emphasis on the natural world, a kindly school atmosphere, and the object lesson, Froebel felt that Pestalozzi’s method was not philosophical enough. Froebel believed that every child’s inner self contained a spiritual essence—a spark of divine energy—that enabled a child to learn independently. In 1837 Froebel opened a kindergarten in Blankenburg with a curriculum that featured songs, stories, games, gifts, and occupations. The songs and stories stimulated the imaginations of children and introduced them to folk heroes and cultural values. Games developed children’s social and physical skills. By playing with each other, children learned to participate in a group. Froebel’s gifts, including such objects as spheres, cubes, and cylinders, were designed to enable the child to understand the concept that the object represented. Occupations consisted of materials children could use in building activities. For example, clay, sand, cardboard, and sticks could be used to build castles, cities, and mountains. Immigrants from Germany brought the kindergarten concept to the United States, where it became part of the American school system. Margarethe Meyer Schurz opened a German-language kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1855. Elizabeth Peabody established an English-language kindergarten and a training school for kindergarten teachers in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1860. William Torrey Harris, superintendent of schools in St. Louis, Missouri, and later a U. S. commissioner of education, made the kindergarten part of the American public school system. BSocial Darwinism British sociologist Herbert Spencer strongly influenced education in the mid-19th century with social theories based on the theory of evolution developed by British naturalist Charles Darwin. Spencer revised Darwin’s biological theory into social Darwinism, a body of ideas that applied the theory of evolution to society, politics, the economy, and education. Spencer maintained that in modern industrialized societies, as in earlier simpler societies, the â€Å"fittest† individuals of each generation survived because they were intelligent and adaptable. Competition caused the brightest and strongest individuals to climb to the top of the society. Urging unlimited competition, Spencer wanted government to restrict its activities to the bare minimum. He opposed public schools, claiming that they would create a monopoly for mediocrity by catering to students of low ability. He wanted private schools to compete against each other in trying to attract the brightest students and most capable teachers. Spencer’s social Darwinism became very popular in the last half of the 19th century when industrialization was changing American and Western European societies. Spencer believed that people in industrialized society needed scientific rather than classical education. Emphasizing education in practical skills, he advocated a curriculum featuring lessons in five basic human activities: (1) those needed for self-preservation such as health, diet, and exercise; (2) those needed to perform one’s occupation so that a person can earn a living, including the basic skills of reading, writing, computation, and knowledge of the sciences; (3) those needed for parenting, to raise children properly; (4) those needed to participate in society and politics; and (5) those needed for leisure and recreation. Spencer’s ideas on education were eagerly accepted in the United States. In 1918 the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, a report issued by the National Education Association, used Spencer’s list of activities in its recommendations for American education. XIIINATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION In the 19th century, governments in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, and other European countries organized national systems of public education. The United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, and other countries in North and South America also established national education systems based largely on European models. AIn the United Kingdom. The Church of England and other churches often operated primary schools in the United Kingdom, where students paid a small fee to study the Bible, catechism, reading, writing, and arithmetic. In 1833 the British Parliament passed a law that gave some government funds to these schools. In 1862 the United Kingdom established a school grant system, called payment by results, in which schools received funds based on their students’ performance on reading, writing, and arithmetic tests. The Education Act of 1870, called the Forster Act, authorized local government boards to establish public board schools. The United Kingdom then had two schools systems: board schools operated by the government and voluntary schools conducted by the churches and other private organizations. In 1878 the United Kingdom passed laws that limited child labor in factories and made it possible for more children to attend school. To make schooling available to working-class children, many schools with limited public and private funds used monitorial methods of instruction. Monitorial education, developed by British educators Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell, used student monitors to conduct lessons. It offered the fledgling public education system the advantage of allowing schools to hire fewer teachers to instruct the large number of new students. Schools featuring monitorial education used older boys, called monitors, who were more advanced in their studies, to teach younger children. Monitorial education concentrated on basic skills—reading, writing, and arithmetic—that were broken down into small parts or units. After a monitor had learned a unit—such as spelling words of two or three letters that began with the letter A—he would, under the master teacher’s supervision, teach this unit to a group of students. By the end of the 19th century, the monitorial system was abandoned in British schools because it provided a very limited education. BIn Russia Russian tsar Alexander II initiated education reforms leading to the Education Statute of 1864. This law created zemstvos, local government units, which operated primary schools. In addition to zemstvo schools, the Russian Orthodox Church conducted parish schools. While the number of children attending school slowly increased, most of Russia’s population remained illiterate. Peasants often refused to send their children to school so that they could work on the farms. More boys attended school than girls since many peasant parents considered female education unnecessary. Fearing that too much education would make people discontented with their lives, the tsar’s government provided only limited schooling to instill political loyalty and religious piety. CIn the United States Before the 19th century elementary and secondary education in the United States was organized on a local or regional level. Nearly all schools operated on private funds exclusively. However, beginning in the 1830s and 1840s, American educators such as Henry Barnard and Horace Mann argued for the creation of a school system operated by individual states that would provide an equal education for all American children. In 1852 Massachusetts passed the first laws calling for free public education, and by 1918 all U. S. states had passed compulsory school attendance laws. See Public Education in the United States. XIVEDUCATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY At the beginning of the 20th century, the writings of Swedish feminist and educator Ellen Key influenced education around the world. Key’s book Barnets arhundrade (1900; The Century of the Child,1909) was translated into many languages and inspired so-called progressive educators in various countries. Progressive education was a system of teaching that emphasized the needs and potentials of the child, rather than the needs of society or the principles of religion. Among the influential progressive educators were Hermann Lietz and Georg Michael Kerschensteiner of Germany, Bertrand Russell of England, and Maria Montessori of Italy. AMontessori Montessori’s methods of early childhood education have become internationally popular. Trained in medicine, Montessori worked with developmentally disabled children early in her career. The results of her work were so effective that she believed her teaching methods could be used to educate all children. In 1907 Montessori established a children’s school, the Casa dei Bambini (Children’s House), for poor children from the San Lorenzo district of Rome. Here she developed a specially prepared environment that featured materials and activities based on her observations of children. She found that children enjoy mastering specific skills, prefer work to play, and can sustain concentration. She also believed that children have a power to learn independently if provided a properly stimulating environment. Montessori’s curriculum emphasized three major classes of activity: (1) practical, (2) sensory, and (3) formal skills and studies. It introduced children to such practical activities as setting the table, serving a meal, washing dishes, tying and buttoning clothing, and practicing basic social manners. Repetitive exercises developed sensory and muscular coordination. Formal skills and subjects included reading, writing, and arithmetic. Montessori designed special teaching materials to develop these skills, including laces, buttons, weights, and materials identifiable by their sound or smell. Instructors provided the materials for the children and demonstrated the lessons but allowed each child to independently learn the particular skill or behavior. In 1913 Montessori lectured in the United States on her educational method.